What Indigenous Animal Sustained Many Great Plains Tribes In The 1800s?

Native Americans/First Nations peoples of the Swell Plains of North America.

"Plains Cree people" redirects hither. For the alliance, come across Iron Confederacy.

Plains Indians or Indigenous peoples of the Dandy Plains and Canadian Prairies are the Native American tribes and Kickoff Nation band governments who have historically lived on the Interior Plains (the Corking Plains and Canadian Prairies) of North America. While hunting-farming cultures have lived on the Great Plains for centuries prior to European contact, the region is known for the horse cultures that flourished from the 17th century through the late 19th century. Their historic nomadism and armed resistance to domination by the authorities and military forces of Canada and the United States have made the Plains Indian culture groups an archetype in literature and art for Native Americans everywhere.

The Plains tribes are usually divided into ii broad classifications which overlap to some degree. The commencement grouping became a fully nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, post-obit the vast herds of buffalo, although some tribes occasionally engaged in agronomics. These include the Arapaho, Assiniboine, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Nakoda (Stoney), and Tonkawa. The 2d grouping were sedentary and semi-sedentary, and, in addition to hunting buffalo, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. These include the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw (or Kansa), Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Wichita, and the Santee Dakota, Yanktonai and Yankton Dakota.

History [edit]

The primeval people of the Great Plains mixed hunting and gathering wild plants. The cultures developed horticulture, so agronomics, equally they settled in sedentary villages and towns. Maize, originally from Mesoamerica and spread north from the Southwest, became widespread in the south of the Great Plains around 700 CE.^[1]

Numerous Plains peoples hunted the American Bison (or buffalo) to make items used in everyday life, such equally food, cups, decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. The tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of the bison. The Plains Indians lived in tipis because they were easily disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game.

The Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was the first European to describe the Plains Indian culture. He encountered villages and cities of the Plains hamlet cultures. While searching for a reputedly wealthy land called Quivira in 1541, Coronado came across the Querechos in the Texas panhandle. The Querechos were the people later called Apache. According to the Spaniards, the Querechos lived "in tents made of the tanned skins of the cows (bison). They dry out the flesh in the lord's day, cutting information technology thin like a leaf, and when dry they grind it similar meal to keep it and make a sort of sea soup of it to eat. ... They season it with fat, which they e'er endeavour to secure when they kill a cow. They empty a large gut and fill information technology with blood, and carry this around the neck to drink when they are thirsty."^[ii] Coronado described many common features of Plains Indians culture: skin tepees, travois pulled past dogs, Plains Indian Sign Language, and staple foods such as jerky and pemmican.

Horses [edit]

Blackfoot warrior, painted between 1840 and 1843 by Karl Bodmer

The Plains Indians found by Coronado had not yet obtained horses; information technology was the introduction of the equus caballus that revolutionized Plains culture. When horses were obtained, the Plains tribes apace integrated them into their daily lives. People in the southwest began to acquire horses in the 16th century past trading or stealing them from Castilian colonists in New Mexico. As horse civilisation moved northward, the Comanche were among the kickoff to commit to a fully mounted nomadic lifestyle. This occurred by the 1730s, when they had acquired plenty horses to put all their people on horseback.^[3]

The horse enabled the Plains Indians to gain their subsistence with relative ease from the seemingly limitless buffalo herds. Riders were able to travel faster and farther in search of bison herds and to transport more goods, thus making it possible to savor a richer material environment than their pedestrian ancestors. For the Plains peoples, the horse became an item of prestige as well as utility. They were extravagantly fond of their horses and the lifestyle they permitted.

The first Castilian conquistador to bring horses to the new earth was Hernán Cortés in 1519. However, Cortés just brought about xvi horses with his expedition. Coronado brought 558 horses with him on his 1539–1542 expedition. At the time, the Indians of these regions had never seen a horse. Only ii of Coronado'south horses were mares, and so he was highly unlikely to accept been the source of the horses that Plains Indians subsequently adopted as the cornerstone of their civilization.^{[iv] : 429} In 1592, however, Juan de Oñate brought 7,000 head of livestock with him when he came north to constitute a colony in New United mexican states. His horse herd included mares every bit well as stallions.

Stump Horn of the Cheyenne and his family with a horse and travois, c. 1871–1907

Pueblo Indians learned about horses by working for Spanish colonists. The Spanish attempted to go along noesis of riding away from Native people, but nonetheless, they learned and some fled their servitude to their Castilian employers—and took horses with them. Some horses were obtained through merchandise in spite of prohibitions confronting it. Other horses escaped captivity for a feral being and were captured by Native people. In all cases the equus caballus was adopted into their civilization and herds multiplied. By 1659, the Navajo from northwestern New Mexico were raiding the Spanish colonies to steal horses. By 1664, the Apache were trading captives from other tribes to the Castilian for horses. The real beginning of the horse culture of the plains began with the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in New Mexico and the capture of thousands of horses and other livestock. They traded many horses due north to the Plains Indians.^{[4] : 429–431} In 1683 a Spanish expedition into Texas constitute horses among Native people. In 1690, a few horses were found past the Spanish amidst the Indians living at the rima oris of the Colorado River of Texas and the Caddo of eastern Texas had a sizeable number.^{[v] [4] : 432}

The French explorer Claude Charles Du Tisne establish 300 horses amid the Wichita on the Verdigris River in 1719, simply they were still not plentiful. Another Frenchman, Bourgmont, could only buy seven at a high price from the Kaw in 1724, indicating that horses were still deficient among tribes in Kansas. While the distribution of horses proceeded slowly northward on the Great Plains, it moved more than speedily through the Rocky Mountains and the Slap-up Basin. The Shoshone in Wyoming had horses past about 1700 and the Blackfoot people, the near northerly of the large Plains tribes, acquired horses in the 1730s.^{[4] : 429–437} By 1770, that Plains Indians civilization was mature, consisting of mounted buffalo-hunting nomads from Saskatchewan and Alberta southward nearly to the Rio Grande. Presently afterwards force per unit area from Europeans on all sides and European diseases acquired its pass up.

This painting by Alfred Jacob Miller portrays Plains Indians chasing buffalo over a small cliff.^[6] The Walters Art Museum.

It was the Comanche, coming to the attention of the Spanish in New Mexico in 1706, who offset realized the potential of the horse. As pure nomads, hunters, and pastoralists, well supplied with horses, they swept most of the mixed-economy Apaches from the plains and by the 1730s were dominant in the Nifty Plains south of the Arkansas River.^{[seven] : 3–4(835–836)} The success of the Comanche encouraged other Indian tribes to prefer a similar lifestyle. The southern Plains Indians caused vast numbers of horses. By the 19th century, Comanche and Kiowa families owned an boilerplate of 35 horses and mules each – and merely half-dozen or seven were necessary for transport and war. The horses extracted a price on the surroundings likewise as required labor to intendance for the herd. Formerly egalitarian societies became more divided by wealth with a negative impact on the role of women. The richest men would take several wives and captives who would help manage their possessions, especially horses.^[8]

The milder winters of the southern Plains favored a pastoral economy by the Indians.^[9] On the northeastern Plains of Canada, the Indians were less favored, with families owning fewer horses, remaining more than dependent upon dogs for transporting goods, and hunting bison on foot. The scarcity of horses in the north encouraged raiding and warfare in contest for the relatively modest number of horses that survived the severe winters.^[10]

The Lakota or Teton Sioux enjoyed the happy medium between Northward and South and became the dominant Plains tribe by the mid 19th century. They had relatively small horse herds, thus having less impact on their ecosystem. At the aforementioned fourth dimension, they occupied the heart of prime bison range which was also an first-class region for furs, which could exist sold to French and American traders for goods such as guns. The Lakota became the about powerful of the Plains tribes.^[11]

Slaughter of the bison [edit]

This map of the extermination of bison to 1889 is based on William Temple Hornaday's late-nineteenth-century research.

Past the 19th century, the typical twelvemonth of the Lakota and other northern nomads was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the wintertime. In June and July the scattered bands of the tribes gathered together into big encampments, which included ceremonies such equally the Sun Dance. These gatherings afforded leaders to run into to make political decisions, programme movements, intervene disputes, and organize and launch raiding expeditions or war parties. In the autumn, people would split up into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long wintertime. Betwixt the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare. With the coming of winter snows, the Lakota settled into winter camps, where activities of the flavour ceremonies and dances as well as trying to ensure adequate winter feed for their horses.^[12] On the southern plains, with their milder winters, the fall and wintertime was oft the raiding season. Starting time in the 1830s, the Comanche and their allies oft raided for horses and other goods deep into United mexican states, sometimes venturing i,000 miles (1,600 km) south from their homes most the Red River in Texas and Oklahoma.^[thirteen]

The U.S. federal government and local governments promoted bison hunting for various reasons: to allow ranchers to range their cattle without contest from other bovines and to starve and weaken the Plains Indian population to pressure them to remain on reservations.^{[14] [15]} The bison herds formed the ground of the economies of the Plains tribes. Without bison, they were forced to motility onto reservations or starve.^[14]

Bison were slaughtered for their skins, with the residue of the animal left behind to decay on the ground. After the animals rotted, their bones were nerveless and shipped back east in large quantities.^[xvi]

A pile of bison skulls in the 1870s.

The railroad manufacture as well wanted bison herds culled or eliminated. Herds of bison on tracks could impairment locomotives when the trains failed to stop in time. Herds often took shelter in the bogus cuts formed by the class of the track winding through hills and mountains in harsh winter conditions. As a result, bison herds could delay a train for days.^{[ citation needed ]}

As the great herds began to wane, proposals to protect the bison were discussed. Buffalo Bill Cody, among others, spoke in favor of protecting the bison because he saw that the force per unit area on the species was besides nifty. Only these were discouraged since it was recognized that the Plains Indians, often at war with the United states, depended on bison for their way of life. In 1874, President Ulysses Southward. Grant "pocket vetoed" a federal beak to protect the dwindling bison herds, and in 1875 General Philip Sheridan pleaded to a joint session of Congress to slaughter the herds, to deprive the Plains Indians of their source of food.^[17] This meant that the bison were hunted almost to extinction during the 19th century and were reduced to a few hundred past the early 1900s.

Indian Wars [edit]

The Ghost Dance ritual, which the Lakota believed would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, cause the white invaders to vanish, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region

Armed conflicts intensified in the tardily 19th century between Native American nations on the plains and the U.S. regime, through what were called generally the Indian Wars.^[xviii] Notable conflicts in this menses include the Dakota War, Peachy Sioux War, Snake State of war and Colorado War. Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, Theodore Roosevelt believed the Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an 1886 lecture:

I don't go so far every bit to recollect that the but good Indians are expressionless Indians, only I believe 9 out of 10 are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth.^[19]

Among the nigh notable events during the wars was the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.^[xx] In the years leading up to it the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. A Ghost Dance ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Genu, Southward Dakota, led to the U.S. Ground forces'due south effort to subdue the Lakota. The dance was office of a religious move founded by the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka that told of the return of the Messiah to save the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would render, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Edenic world.^[twenty] On December 29 at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U.Southward. soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, more often than not old men, women, and children.^[20]

Fabric culture [edit]

Agriculture and plant foods [edit]

The Wichita were an agrarian Southern Plains tribe, who traditionally lived in beehive-shaped houses thatched with grass surrounded by extensive maize fields. They were skilled farmers who traded agricultural products with the nomadic tribes in exchange for meat and hides.

The semi-sedentary, hamlet-home Plains Indians depended upon agriculture for a big share of their livelihood, specially those who lived in the eastern parts of the Great Plains which had more precipitation than the western side. Corn was the dominant crop, followed by squash and beans. Tobacco, sunflower, plums and other wild plants were also cultivated or gathered in the wild.^{[21] [22]} Among the wild crops gathered the most of import were probably berries to flavor pemmican and the Prairie Turnip.

The showtime indisputable evidence of maize cultivation on the Peachy Plains is about 900 AD.^[23] The earliest farmers, the Southern Plains villagers were probably Caddoan speakers, the ancestors of the Wichita, Pawnee, and Arikara of today. Plains farmers developed curt-flavour and drought resistant varieties of food plants. They did non employ irrigation but were adept at water harvesting and siting their fields to receive the maximum benefit of limited rainfall. The Hidatsa and Mandan of North Dakota cultivated maize at the northern limit of its range.^[24]

The farming tribes also hunted buffalo, deer, elk, and other game. Typically, on the southern Plains, they planted crops in the spring, left their permanent villages to hunt buffalo in the summer, returned to harvest crops in the fall, and left again to hunt buffalo in the wintertime. The farming Indians likewise traded corn to the nomadic tribes for stale buffalo meat.

With the arrival of the horse, some tribes, such as the Lakota and Cheyenne, gave up agronomics to become full-time, buffalo-hunting nomads.

Hunting [edit]

"Assiniboine hunting buffalo", painting by Paul Kane

Although people of the Plains hunted other animals, such as elk or pronghorn, buffalo was the primary game food source. Before horses were introduced, hunting was a more complicated procedure. Hunters would surround the bison, and so try to herd them off cliffs or into bars places where they could be more than easily killed. The Plains Indians constructed a v-shaped funnel, well-nigh a mile long, fabricated of fallen trees or rocks. Sometimes bison could be lured into a trap by a person covering himself with a bison pare and imitating the call of the animals.^[25]

Before their adoption of guns, the Plains Indians hunted with spears, bows, and various forms of clubs. The use of horses past the Plains Indians made hunting (and warfare) much easier. With horses, the Plains Indians had the means and speed to stampede or overtake the bison. The Plains Indians reduced the length of their bows to 3 feet to accommodate their use on horseback. They continued to utilise bows and arrows after the introduction of firearms, considering guns took likewise long to reload and were besides heavy. In the summer, many tribes gathered for hunting in one identify. The chief hunting seasons were fall, summer, and leap. In winter, adverse weather such as snow and blizzards made it more difficult to locate and chase bison.

Vesture [edit]

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Hides, with or without fur, provided cloth for much clothing. Most of the clothing consisted of the hides of buffalo and deer, every bit well equally numerous species of birds and other small game.^[26] Plains moccasins tended to be constructed with soft braintanned hibernate on the vamps and tough rawhide for the soles. Men's moccasins tended to have flaps effectually the ankles, while women's had high tops, which could be pulled up in the winter and rolled downwardly in the summertime. Honored warriors and leaders earn the correct to vesture war bonnets, headdresses with feathers, often of golden or bald eagles.

Lodge and civilisation [edit]

Religion [edit]

While there are some similarities among linguistic and regional groups, dissimilar tribes take their ain cosmologies and world views. Some of these are animist in nature, with aspects of polytheism, while others tend more towards monotheism or panentheism. Prayer is a regular office of daily life, for regular individuals as well every bit spiritual leaders, alone and as office of group ceremonies. One of the most of import gatherings for many of the Plains tribes is the yearly Sunday Trip the light fantastic, an elaborate spiritual ceremony that involves personal sacrifice, multiple days of fasting and prayer for the good of loved ones and the benefit of the entire community.^[27]

Certain people are considered to be wakan (Lakota: "holy"), and get through many years of training to become medicine men or women, entrusted with spiritual leadership roles in the community. The buffalo and eagle are particularly sacred to many of the Plains peoples, and may be represented in iconography, or parts used in regalia. In Plains cosmology, certain items may possess spiritual power, particularly medicine bundles which are only entrusted to prominent religious figures of a tribe, and passed downwardly from keeper to keeper in each succeeding generation.

Gender roles [edit]

Historically, Plains Indian women had distinctly defined gender roles that were unlike from, but complementary to, men's roles. They typically endemic the family's home and the majority of its contents.^[28] In traditional civilization, women tanned hides, tended crops, gathered wild foods, prepared food, made clothing, and took down and erected the family's tepees. In the present day, these customs are still observed when lodges are fix upward for ceremonial employ, such as at pow wows. Historically, Plains women were not every bit engaged in public political life equally were the women in the coastal tribes. However, they still participated in an advisory office and through the women'south societies.^[29]

In gimmicky Plains cultures, traditionalists work to preserve the knowledge of these traditions of everyday life and the values attached to them.^[30]

Plains women in general have historically had the correct to divorce and keep custody of their children.^[28] Because women own the home, an unkind husband can notice himself homeless.^[28] A historical example of a Plains woman divorcing is Making Out Road, a Cheyenne woman, who in 1841 married non-Native frontiersman Kit Carson. The marriage was turbulent and formally ended when Making Out Road threw Carson and his holding out of her tepee (in the traditional manner of announcing a divorce). She later went on to marry, and divorce, several boosted men, both European-American and Indian.^[31]

Warfare [edit]

Master article: Plains Indians Warfare

This painting depicts the speed and violence of an run into between the U.S. cavalry and Plains Indians.

The earliest Spanish explorers in the 16th century did not discover the Plains Indians peculiarly warlike. The Wichita in Kansas and Oklahoma lived in dispersed settlements with no defensive works. The Spanish initially had friendly contacts with the Apache (Querechos) in the Texas Panhandle.^[2]

Three factors led to a growing importance of warfare in Plains Indian civilization. First, was the Spanish colonization of New Mexico which stimulated raids and counter-raids by Spaniards and Indians for appurtenances and slaves. 2d, was the contact of the Indians with French fur traders which increased rivalry among Indian tribes to control trade and trade routes. Third, was the acquisition of the equus caballus and the greater mobility it afforded the Plains Indians.^[32] What evolved amidst the Plains Indians from the 17th to the late 19th century was warfare as both a means of livelihood and a sport. Immature men gained both prestige and plunder by fighting every bit warriors, and this individualistic mode of warfare ensured that success in individual combat and capturing trophies of war were highly esteemed ^{[33] : xx}

The Plains Indians raided each other, the Spanish colonies, and, increasingly, the encroaching frontier of the Anglos for horses, and other property. They acquired guns and other European goods primarily by trade. Their principal trading products were buffalo hides and beaver pelts.^[34] The almost renowned of all the Plains Indians as warriors were the Comanche whom The Economist noted in 2010: "They could loose a flock of arrows while hanging off the side of a galloping horse, using the beast as protection confronting render fire. The sight amazed and terrified their white (and Indian) adversaries."^[35] The American historian Due south. C. Gwynne called the Comanche "the greatest calorie-free cavalry on the earth" in the 19th century whose raids in Texas terrified the American settlers.^[35]

Although they could be tenacious in defense, Plains Indians warriors took the offensive by and large for material gain and private prestige. The highest military honors were for "counting coup"—touching a alive enemy. Battles between Indians often consisted of opposing warriors demonstrating their bravery rather than attempting to attain concrete military objectives. The accent was on deadfall and hitting and run actions rather than closing with an enemy. Success was frequently counted by the number of horses or belongings obtained in the raid. Casualties were normally low-cal. "Indians consider it foolhardiness to make an attack where information technology is sure some of them will exist killed."^[36] Given their smaller numbers, the loss of even a few men in battle could exist catastrophic for a band, and notably at the battles of Adobe Walls in Texas in 1874 and Rosebud in Montana in 1876, the Indians broke off battle despite the fact that they were winning as the casualties were not considered worth a victory.^{[33] : 20} The most famous victory ever won by the Plains Indians over the United states, the Battle of Lilliputian Bighorn, in 1876, was won by the Lakota (Sioux) and Cheyenne fighting on the defensive.^{[33] : 20} Decisions whether to fight or not were based on a toll-benefit ratio; even the loss of one warrior was not considered to exist worth taking a few scalps, but if a herd of horses could be obtained, the loss of a warrior or two was considered acceptable.^{[33] : 20} Generally speaking, given the pocket-size sizes of the bands and the vast population of the United states of america, the Plains Indians sought to avoid casualties in battle, and would avoid fighting if information technology meant losses.^{[33] : 20}

Due to their mobility, endurance, horsemanship, and knowledge of the vast plains that were their domain, the Plains Indians were often victors in their battles confronting the U.Due south. army in the American era from 1803 to almost 1890. However, although Indians won many battles, they could not undertake lengthy campaigns. Indian armies could only be assembled for brief periods of time as warriors also had to chase for food for their families.^[37] The exception to that was raids into Mexico past the Comanche and their allies in which the raiders often subsisted for months off the riches of Mexican haciendas and settlements. The basic weapon of the Indian warrior was the curt, stout bow, designed for use on horseback and deadly, but merely at curt range. Guns were usually in brusque supply and armament scarce for Native warriors.^[38] The U.S. government through the Indian Bureau would sell the Plains Indians guns for hunting, just unlicensed traders would exchange guns for buffalo hides.^{[33] : 23} The shortages of ammunition together with the lack of training to handle firearms meant the preferred weapon was the bow and arrow.^{[33] : 23}

Inquiry [edit]

The people of the Bully Plains have been institute to be the tallest people in the globe during the belatedly 19th century, based on 21st century analysis of data collected by Franz Boas for the Earth Columbian Exposition. This information is significant to anthropometric historians, who usually equate the height of populations with their overall health and standard of living.^[39]

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies [edit]

Indigenous peoples of the Slap-up Plains are oft separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

• Anishinaabe (Anishinape, Anicinape, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see besides Ethnic peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands)
  • Saulteaux (Nakawē), Manitoba, Minnesota and Ontario; later Alberta, British Columbia, Montana, Saskatchewan
• Apache (see also Southwest)
  • Lipan Apache, New United mexican states, Texas
  • Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache), Oklahoma
  • Querecho Apache, Texas
• Arapaho (Arapahoe), formerly Colorado, currently Oklahoma and Wyoming
  • Besawunena
  • Nawathinehena
• Arikara (Arikaree, Arikari, Ree), North Dakota
• Atsina (Gros Ventre), Montana
• Blackfoot
  • Kainai Nation (Káínaa, Blood), Alberta
  • Northern Peigan (Aapátohsipikáni), Alberta
  • Blackfeet, Southern Piegan (Aamsskáápipikani), Montana
  • Siksika (Siksikáwa), Alberta
• Cheyenne, Montana, Oklahoma
  • Suhtai, Montana, Oklahoma
• Comanche, Oklahoma, Texas
• Plains Cree, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba
• Crow (Absaroka, Apsáalooke), Montana
• Escanjaques, Oklahoma
• Hidatsa, North Dakota
• Iowa (Ioway), Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma
• Kaw (Kansa, Kanza), Kansas, Oklahoma
• Kiowa, Oklahoma
• Mandan, Due north Dakota
• Métis people (Canada), North Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta
• Missouri (Missouria), Oklahoma
• Omaha, Nebraska
• Osage, Oklahoma, formerly Arkansas, Missouri
• Otoe (Oto), Oklahoma, formerly Missouri
• Pawnee, Oklahoma
  • Chaui, Oklahoma^[40]
  • Kitkehakhi, Oklahoma^[40]
  • Pitahawirata, Oklahoma^[twoscore]
  • Skidi, Oklahoma^[40]
• Ponca, Nebraska, Oklahoma
• Quapaw, formerly Arkansas, Oklahoma
• Sioux (Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, Seven Council Fires)
  • Dakota, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Due north Dakota, Southward Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan
    • Bdewékhaŋthuŋwaŋ (Spirit Lake Village)
    • Sisíthuŋwaŋ (Swamp/lake/fish Scale Village)
    • Waȟpékhute (Leaf Archers)
    • Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ (Leaf Village)
    • Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ (Stop Village)
    • Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (Niggling End Hamlet)
  • Lakota (Thítȟuŋwaŋ, Dwellers on the Prairies), Montana, Northward Dakota, South Dakota, Saskatchewan
    • Sičháŋǧu (Brulé, Burned Thighs)
    • Oglála (Scatters Their Ain)
    • Itázipčho (Sans Arc, No Bows)
    • Húŋkpapȟa (Hunkpapa)
    • Mnikȟówožu (Miniconjou)
    • Sihásapa (Blackfoot Sioux)
    • Oóhenuŋpa (2 Kettles)
  • Nakoda (Stoney), Alberta
  • Nakota, Assiniboine (Assiniboin), Montana, Saskatchewan
• Teyas, Texas
• Tonkawa, Oklahoma
• Tsuu T'ina, (Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuut'ina), Alberta
• Wichita and Affiliated Tribes (Kitikiti'sh), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas
  • Kichai (also related to the Caddo), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas
  • Taovayas (Tawehash), Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas
  • Tawakoni, Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas
  • Waco (Iscani, Yscani), Oklahoma, formerly Texas
  • Wichita proper, Guichita, Rayados, Oklahoma, formerly Texas and Kansas

See besides [edit]

• Comanche-Mexico Wars
• Plains Standard Sign Linguistic communication
• Plains hide painting
• Hair driblet, Plains men's adornment
• Native American tribes in Nebraska
• Buffalo bound
• Southern Plains villagers

References [edit]

1. ^ Krishna, Chiliad. R. (2015). Agricultural Prairies: Natural Resources and Crop Productivity. Apple Academic Press. p. 50. ISBN978-1771880503.
2. ^ ^{a b} Pedro de Castañeda de Nájera (1904). The Journey of Coronado, 1540–1542, from the City of United mexican states to the K Coulee of the Colorado and the Buffalo Plains of Texas. Translated past Winship, George Parker. New York: A.South. Barnes & Company. p. 112. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
3. ^ Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN978-0-300-12654-ix.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Haines, Francis. "The North Spread of Horses amongst the Plains Indians. American Anthropologist, Vol 40, No. 3 (1988)
5. ^ Bolton, Herbert Eugene. Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542–1706. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (reprint) pp. 296, 315
6. ^ "Hunting Buffalo". The Walters Fine art Museum.
7. ^ Hämäläinen, Pekka (2003). "The Ascent and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Culture". Journal of American History. 90 (three): 833–862. doi:10.2307/3660878. JSTOR 3660878. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
8. ^ Hämäläinen (2008), 7–8
9. ^ Osborn, Alan J. "Ecological Aspects of Equestrian Adaptation in Aboriginal Due north America." American Anthropologist, Nol. 85, No. iii (Sept 1983), 566
10. ^ Hämäläinen (2008), 10–15
11. ^ Hämäläinen (2008), 20–21
12. ^ Hyde, George E. Ruddy Cloud'southward Folks: A History of the Oglala Sioux Norman: Academy of Oklahoma Press, 1937, p. 160; Price, Catherine, The Oglala People, 1841-1879 Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 13-16
13. ^ DeLay, Brian, The State of war of a Thousand Deserts. New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Press, 2008, pp. 116, 317-319, 327
14. ^ ^{a b} Moulton, M (1995). Wild animals issues in a changing world, 2nd edition. CRC Press.
15. ^ Smits, David D. (1994). "The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865-1883". The Western Historical Quarterly. Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University on behalf of The Western History Association. 25 (3): 112–338. doi:10.2307/971110. JSTOR 971110. PDF: history.msu.edu
16. ^ Records, Laban (March 1995). Cherokee Outlet Cowboy: Recollections of Laban S. Records. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN978-0-8061-2694-4.
17. ^ Bergman, Brian (February 16, 2004). "Bison Back from Brink of Extinction". Maclean's. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved August xix, 2019. For the sake of lasting peace, let them impale, skin and sell until the buffaloes are exterminated.
18. ^ Thornton, Russell (1990). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Academy of Oklahoma Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5
19. ^ Cary Michael Carney (1999). "Native American College Education in the Usa". pp. 65-66. Transaction Publications
20. ^ ^{a b c} "Plains Humanities: Wounded Articulatio genus Massacre". Retrieved August 9, 2016.
21. ^ Drass, Richard R. (February 2008). "Corn, Beans and Bison: Cultivated Plants and Changing Economies of the Tardily Prehistoric Villagers on the Plains of Oklahoma and Northwest Texas". Plains Anthropologist. 53 (205): 12. doi:10.1179/pan.2008.003. JSTOR 25670974. S2CID 162889821. Retrieved viii September 2020.
22. ^ Fryer, Janet 50. (2010). "Prunus americana". Fire Effects Information System, Online. Us Forest Service. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
23. ^ Drass, p. 12
24. ^ Schneider, Fred "Prehistoric Horticulture in the Northeastern Plains." Plains Anthropologist, 47 (180), 2002, pp. 33-50
25. ^ "Bison Bellows: Indigenous Hunting Practices". National Park Service. 6 Nov 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
26. ^ Strutin, Michal (1999). A Guide to Contemporary Plains Indians. Tucson: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association. pp. 9–eleven. ISBN9781877856808 . Retrieved 27 April 2016.
27. ^ Brown, 1996: pp. 34-v; 1994 Mandelbaum, 1975, pp. fourteen-xv; & Pettipas, 1994 p. 210. "A Description and Assay of Sacrificial Stall Dancing: As Practiced by the Plains Cree and Saulteaux of the Pasqua Reserve, Saskatchewan, in their Contemporary Pelting Dance Ceremonies" past Randall J. Brown, Master thesis, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1996. Mandelbaum, David G. (1979). The Plains Cree: An ethnographic, historical and comparative study. Canadian Plains Studies No. 9. Regina: Canadian Plains Inquiry Center. Pettipas, Katherine. (1994). "Serving the ties that bind: Government repression of Indigenous religious ceremonies on the prairies." Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.
28. ^ ^{a b c} Wishart, David J. "Native American Gender Roles." Encyclopedia of the Not bad Plains. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
29. ^ Price 19
30. ^ "Traditional Vs Progressive « Speak Without Interruption". speakwithoutinterruption.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved x September 2015.
31. ^ Sides, Hampton. Claret and Thunder: An Epic of the American West New York: Doubleday, 2006, p. 34
32. ^ John, Elizabeth A. H. Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds Lincoln: University of Nebraska Printing, 1975, p. 154
33. ^ ^{a b c d east f one thousand} Robinson, Charles The Plains Wars 1757-1900, London: Osprey, 2003
34. ^ Eifler, Mark. "Trade". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska Lincoln. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
35. ^ ^{a b} "The Boxing for Texas". The Economist. 17 June 2010. Retrieved 2016-11-30 .
36. ^ Ambrose, Stephen Crazy Horse and Custer New York: Anchor Books, 1975, p. 12.
37. ^ Ambrose, p. 66
38. ^ Ambrose, p. 243
39. ^ "Standing Tall: Plains Indians Enjoyed Height, Wellness Advantage" Archived 2007-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Jeff Grabmeier, Ohio Country
40. ^ ^{a b c d} "Preamble." Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. Archived 2013-ten-07 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 5 Dec 2012.

Farther reading [edit]

• Berlo, Janet Catherine; et al. (1998). Native paths: American Indian art from the drove of Charles and Valerie Diker . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN9780870998560.
• Carlson, Paul H. (1998) The Plains Indians. Higher Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-828-4
• Keyser, James D; Michael Klassen (2001), Plains Indian Rock Art, University of Washington Printing, ISBN029598094X
• Lowie, Robert Harry; Raymond J. DeMallie (1982), Indians of the Plains, University of Nebraska Printing, ISBN0-8032-2858-9
• Mark, Sherry (2003), Plains Indian Wars, Facts On File, ISBN0-8160-4931-9
• Ronald Peter, Koch (1988), Dress Article of clothing of the Plains Indians, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN0-8061-2137-8
• Schuon, Frithjof (1990), The feathered sun: plains Indians in art and philosophy, World Wisdom Books, ISBN0-941532-ten-0
• Sturtevant, William C., full general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume fifteen. Washington DC: Smithsonian Establishment, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
• Taylor, Colin East. (1994) The Plains Indians: A Cultural and Historical View of the N American Plains Tribes of the Pre-Reservation Flow. Crescent. ISBN 0-517-14250-iii.

External links [edit]

• Great Plains Indians Musical Instruments on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
• "American Indian Contributions To Scientific discipline and Engineering science", Chris R. Landon, Portland Public Schools, 1993
• "Buffalo and the Plains Indians", Due south Dakota State Historical Order Education Kit

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plains_Indians

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